The article about the evolutionary history of body size on Earth has raised some interest. Words like “latent evolutionary potential was realized”, “realize preexisting evolutionary potential” and" a major innovation in organismal complexity—first the eukaryotic cell and later eukaryotic multicellularity" seem to have raised a few eye brows. Are “latent”, “pre-existing”, “innovation” and “potential” the appropriate words?
From the following figure, the earliest multicellular (Grypania spiralis) eukaryotic fossil dates back ±1.6 billion years ago (bya) and at present the earliest evidence for eukaryotic cells is posited to have existed 1.68-1.78 bya, (perhaps 1.8 bya or possibly even 2.1 bya) (Figure 1).
Figure 1
The following tree is adapted from discoverlife.org with the tentative dates for the origins of archaea and bacteria, eukaryotes, as well as the origins of multicellular body plans (>3 cell types) (Figure 2).*
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Figure 2: Tree of life (Adapted from discoverlife.org)
As suggested by the paper, increases in cellular sizes roughly coincide with the alleviation of at least one environmental constraint, namely low atmospheric oxygen pressure. The origin of body plans (±0.6 bya) also seem to coincide with an increase in atmospheric pressure. Why could that be?
A look at hedgehogs
With about 6, 000 spines on their back, an excellent sense of smell, a running speed of 4.5 mph a normal heart rate of up to 19o bps and 10 bps during hibernation, hedgehogs are interesting little animals. Hedgehog (hh) genes are equally fascinating. The reason for the name of this gene is that a malfunctioning hh gene often results in the formation of small pointy projections on embryos, similar to that of a hedgehog. So what does it do?
Functions
The hh signaling pathway plays a fundamental role in cell pattrerning, cell proliferation and participates in the development of tissues and organs during the stages of animal development. It exerts its effect by influencing the transcription of many target genes in a concentration dependent manner.
Mechanism of action and signal transduction: Hints from hedgelings and hoglets
The hh protein comprises of two domains, namely the hedge domain (hedgling) and the hog domain (hoglet). The hedge domain acts as a ligand after processing and binds to a set of conserved receptors to activate downstream signal transduction pathways [1]. After transcription, the hh-gene undergoes a post-translational autocatalyzing editing process initiated by the hoglet resulting in the formation of the hedgling protein. Further processing of the hedgling occur and include the palmitoylation and sterolation (addition of cholesterol) of the ligand (Figure 3). Interestingly, hh proteins are the only examples of sterolation in contempory biology (more on that later) [2]. After processing, the hedgling ligand is transported through the Dispatched receptor where it binds to a specific lipd transport molecule (different in invertebrates and vertabrates) and is transported and binds to the 12-transmembrane protein called Patched. Internalisation of Patched alleviates the inhibitory effect of Patched on the 7-transmembrane protein Smoothened. This in turn activates the hedghog-related transcription factors (Gli in vertebrates and Ci in invertabrates) (Figure 3) [2]. This relatively simple pathway plays a crucial role in the unfolding of the developmental program in vertebrates and invertebrates.
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Figure 3: Hedgehog signal transduction. The hedgehog protein is post-translationally modified through autocatalyzation and palmitate and cholesterol addition. Processed hedgelings are transported to the extracellular matrix through dispatched receptors and in turn transported by lipid transport molecules to bind to patched receptors. Binding of hedgling molecules to Patched receptor results in the subsequent activation of hedgehog mediated transcrition factors e.g. Gli in vertebrates and Ci in invertebrates.
